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Marcus Aurelius

Latin nameMarcus Aurelius

The philosopher-emperor who wrote the Meditations on the battlefield

Born to the Purple · Kings & Emperors
The Five Good EmperorsStoicismThe Meditations

Who they are

Marcus Aurelius was the last of the Five Good Emperors, and the only real instance of the ideal of "a philosopher governing the state." He studied Stoic philosophy from childhood, yet after coming to the throne barely had a single peaceful day: the Parthian War in the East, the Antonine Plague the legions brought back, the continual incursions of Germanic tribes along the Danube — he spent much of his life in frontier camps. In the very tents of the march he wrote himself, in Greek, a book of private notes never meant for publication, which posterity named the Meditations: on duty, on impermanence, on how to keep an inner order in a world one cannot control. He was the swan song of the "age of good emperors" — breaking with the four preceding generations of "passing to the worthy, not the son," he handed the throne to his own son Commodus. That decision ended Rome’s golden age with his own hand.

Primary sourcesMarcus Aurelius, MeditationsHistoria Augusta (of uneven reliability)Cassius Dio, Roman History

Key stories

Philosophy in a tent

The Meditations was not written for readers but for himself: each morning he reminded himself that "today I shall meet the meddling, the ungrateful, the arrogant," and then talked himself out of being moved by them. "The time you have is limited; if you do not use it to light your own soul, it will pass, and you with it." For a man holding absolute power in the midst of war and plague, the deepest struggle was not to conquer the enemy but "how not to be ruled by anger and fear." Two thousand years later it is still one of the best-selling works of philosophy in the world.

The end of the age of the worthy

The four preceding good emperors either had no son or chose to adopt the capable — Nerva chose Trajan, Trajan chose Hadrian, ability rather than blood deciding the succession, and that was the golden age’s institutional secret. Marcus Aurelius instead passed the throne to his own son Commodus. Commodus amused himself as a gladiator, cruel and debauched, and was assassinated twelve years later, after which Rome slid into the Crisis of the Third Century. Historians often ask: with Marcus’s wisdom, how could he not see his son’s unfitness? The answer may be — once "passing to the son" became possible again, even the best emperor could not resist the pull of blood.

Relationships

Echoes today

Below are how modern works borrow or reinterpret this name or story — not the original material. The two differ, so keep them apart.

The enduring MeditationsStill one of the best-selling philosophy books in the world, and a core text of the modern Stoic revival.
GladiatorThe 2000 film is set against the death of Marcus Aurelius and the accession of Commodus, though much of the plot is invented.

Appears in